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Sensors and actuators: control systems instrumentation
Author
Publisher
CRC Press
Publication Date
c2007
Language
English
Description
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Table of Contents
From the Book
1. Control, Instrumentation, and Design
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Control Engineering
1.2.1. Instrumentation and Design
1.2.2. Modeling and Design
1.3. Control System Architectures
1.3.1. Feedback Control with PID Action
1.3.2. Digital Control
1.3.3. Feed-Forward Control
1.3.4. Programmable Logic Controllers
1.3.4.1. PLC Hardware
1.3.5. Distributed Control
1.3.5.1. A Networked Application
1.3.6. Hierarchical Control
1.4. Organization of the Book
Problems
2. Component Interconnection and Signal Conditioning
2.1. Component Interconnection
2.2. Impedance Characteristics
2.2.1. Cascade Connection of Devices
2.2.2. Impedance Matching
2.2.3. Impedance Matching in Mechanical Systems
2.3. Amplifiers
2.3.1. Operational Amplifier
2.3.1.1. Use of Feedback in Op-Amps
2.3.2. Voltage, Current, and Power Amplifiers
2.3.3. Instrumentation Amplifiers
2.3.3.1. Differential Amplifier
2.3.3.2. Common Mode
2.3.4. Amplifier Performance Ratings
2.3.4.1. Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
2.3.4.2. AC-Coupled Amplifiers
2.3.5. Ground-Loop Noise
2.4. Analog Filters
2.4.1. Passive Filters and Active Filters
2.4.1.1. Number of Poles
2.4.2. Low-Pass Filters
2.4.2.1. Low-Pass Butterworth Filter
2.4.3. High-Pass Filters
2.4.4. Band-Pass Filters
2.4.4.1. Resonance-Type Band-Pass Filters
2.4.5. Band-Reject Filters
2.5. Modulators and Demodulators
2.5.1. Amplitude Modulation
2.5.1.1. Modulation Theorem
2.5.1.2. Side Frequencies and Side Bands
2.5.2. Application of Amplitude Modulation
2.5.2.1. Fault Detection and Diagnosis
2.5.3. Demodulation
2.6. Analog-Digital Conversion
2.6.1. Digital to Analog Conversion
2.6.1.1. Weighted Resistor DAC
2.6.1.2. Ladder DAC
2.6.1.3. DAC Error Sources
2.6.2. Analog to Digital Conversion
2.6.2.1. Successive Approximation ADC
2.6.2.2. Dual-Slope ADC
2.6.2.3. Counter ADC
2.6.2.4. ADC Performance Characteristics
2.7. Sample-and-Hold Circuitry
2.8. Multiplexers
2.8.1. Analog Multiplexers
2.8.2. Digital Multiplexers
2.9. Digital Filters
2.9.1. Software Implementation and Hardware Implementation
2.10. Bridge Circuits
2.10.1. Wheatstone Bridge
2.10.2. Constant-Current Bridge
2.10.3. Hardware Linearization of Bridge Outputs
2.10.4. Bridge Amplifiers
2.10.5. Half-Bridge Circuits
2.10.6. Impedance Bridges
2.10.6.1. Owen Bridge
2.10.6.2. Wien-Bridge Oscillator
2.11. Linearizing Devices
2.11.1. Linearization by Software
2.11.2. Linearization by Hardware Logic
2.11.3. Analog Linearizing Circuitry
2.11.4. Offsetting Circuitry
2.11.5. Proportional-Output Circuitry
2.11.6. Curve-Shaping Circuitry
2.12. Miscellaneous Signal-Modification Circuitry
2.12.1. Phase Shifters
2.12.2. Voltage-to-Frequency Converters
2.12.3. Frequency-to-Voltage Converter
2.12.4. Voltage-to-Current Converter
2.12.5. Peak-Hold Circuits
2.13. Signal Analyzers and Display Devices
2.13.1. Signal Analyzers
2.13.2. Oscilloscopes
2.13.2.1. Triggering
2.13.2.2. Lissajous Patterns
2.13.2.3. Digital Oscilloscopes
Problems
3. Performance Specification and Analysis
3.1. Parameters for Performance Specification
3.1.1. Perfect Measurement Device
3.2. Time-Domain Specifications
3.2.1. Rise Time
3.2.2. Delay Time
3.2.3. Peak Time
3.2.4. Settling Time
3.2.5. Percentage Overshoot
3.2.6. Steady-State Error
3.2.7. Simple Oscillator Model
3.2.8. Stability and Speed of Response
3.3. Frequency-Domain Specifications
3.3.1. Gain Margin and Phase Margin
3.3.2. Simple Oscillator Model
3.4. Linearity
3.4.1. Saturation
3.4.2. Dead Zone
3.4.3. Hysteresis
3.4.4. The Jump Phenomenon
3.4.5. Limit Cycles
3.4.6. Frequency Creation
3.5. Instrument Ratings
3.5.1. Rating Parameters
3.6. Bandwidth Design
3.6.1. Bandwidth
3.6.1.1. Transmission Level of a Band-Pass Filter
3.6.1.2. Effective Noise Bandwidth
3.6.1.3. Half-Power (or 3dB) Bandwidth
3.6.1.4. Fourier Analysis Bandwidth
3.6.1.5. Useful Frequency Range
3.6.1.6. Instrument Bandwidth
3.6.1.7. Control Bandwidth
3.6.2. Static Gain
3.7. Aliasing Distortion due to Signal Sampling
3.7.1. Sampling Theorem
3.7.2. Antialiasing Filter
3.7.3. Another Illustration of Aliasing
3.8. Bandwidth Design of a Control System
3.8.1. Comment about Control Cycle Time
3.9. Instrument Error Analysis
3.9.1. Statistical Representation
3.9.2. Accuracy and Precision
3.9.3. Error Combination
3.9.3.1. Absolute Error
3.9.3.2. SRSS Error
3.10. Statistical Process Control
3.10.1. Control Limits or Action Lines
3.10.2. Steps of SPC
Problems
4. Analog Sensors and Transducers
4.1. Terminology
4.1.1. Motion Transducers
4.2. Potentiometer
4.2.1. Rotatory Potentiometers
4.2.1.1. Loading Nonlinearity
4.2.2. Performance Considerations
4.2.3. Optical Potentiometer
4.3. Variable-Inductance Transducers
4.3.1. Mutual-Induction Transducers
4.3.2. Linear-Variable Differential Transformer/Transducer
4.3.2.1. Phase Shift and Null Voltage
4.3.2.2. Signal Conditioning
4.3.3. Rotatory-Variable Differential Transformer/Transducer
4.3.4. Mutual-Induction Proximity Sensor
4.3.5. Resolver
4.3.5.1. Demodulation
4.3.5.2. Resolver with Rotor Output
4.3.6. Synchro Transformer
4.3.7. Self-Induction Transducers
4.4. Permanent-Magnet Transducers
4.4.1. DC Tachometer
4.4.1.1. Electronic Commutation
4.4.1.2. Modeling and Design Example
4.4.1.3. Loading Considerations
4.4.2. Permanent-Magnet AC Tachometer
4.4.3. AC Induction Tachometer
4.4.4. Eddy Current Transducers
4.5. Variable-Capacitance Transducers
4.5.1. Capacitive Rotation Sensor
4.5.2. Capacitive Displacement Sensor
4.5.3. Capacitive Angular Velocity Sensor
4.5.4. Capacitance Bridge Circuit
4.5.5. Differential (Push-PuU) Displacement Sensor
4.6. Piezoelectric Sensors
4.6.1. Sensitivity
4.6.2. Accelerometers
4.6.3. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
4.6.4. Charge Amplifier
4.7. Effort Sensors
4.7.1. Force Causality Issues
4.7.1.1. Force-Motion Causality
4.7.1.2. Physical Realizability
4.7.2. Force Control Problems
4.7.2.1. Force Feedback Control
4.7.2.2. Feedforward Force Control
4.7.3. Impedance Control
4.7.4. Force Sensor Location
4.8. Strain Gages
4.8.1. Equations for Strain-Gage Measurements
4.8.1.1. Bridge Sensitivity
4.8.1.2. The Bridge Constant
4.8.1.3. The Calibration Constant
4.8.1.4. Data Acquisition
4.8.1.5. Accuracy Considerations
4.8.2. Semiconductor Strain Gages
4.8.3. Automatic (Self) Compensation for Temperature
4.9. Torque Sensors
4.9.1. Strain-Gage Torque Sensors
4.9.2. Design Considerations
4.9.2.1. Strain Capacity of the Gage
4.9.2.2. Strain-Gage Nonlinearity Limit
4.9.2.3. Sensitivity Requirement
4.9.2.4. Stiffness Requirement
4.9.3. Deflection Torque Sensors
4.9.3.1. Direct-Deflection Torque Sensor
4.9.3.2. Variable-Reluctance Torque Sensor
4.9.4. Reaction Torque Sensors
4.9.5. Motor Current Torque Sensors
4.9.6. Force Sensors
4.10. Tactile Sensing
4.10.1. Tactile Sensor Requirements
4.10.2. Construction and Operation of Tactile Sensors
4.10.3. Optical Tactile Sensors
4.10.4. Piezoresistive Tactile Sensors
4.10.5. Dexterity
4.10.6. A Strain-Gage Tactile Sensor
4.10.7. Other Types of Tactile Sensors
4.10.8. Passive Compliance
4.11. Gyroscopic Sensors
4.11.1. Rate Gyro
4.11.2. Coriolis Force Devices
4.12. Optical Sensors and Lasers
4.12.1. Fiber-Optic Position Sensor
4.12.2. Laser Interferometer
4.12.3. Fiber-Optic Gyroscope
4.12.4. Laser Doppler Interferometer
4.13. Ultrasonic Sensors
4.13.1. Magnetostrictive Displacement Sensors
4.14. Thermofluid Sensors
4.14.1. Pressure Sensors
4.14.2. Flow Sensors
4.14.3. Temperature Sensors
4.14.3.1. Thermocouple
4.14.3.2. Resistance Temperature Detector
4.14.3.3. Thermistor
4.14.3.4. Bi-Metal Strip Thermometer
4.15. Other Types of Sensors
Problems
5. Digital Transducers
5.1. Advantages of Digital Transducers
5.2. Shaft Encoders
5.2.1. Encoder Types
5.3. Incremental Optical Encoders
5.3.1. Direction of Rotation
5.3.2. Hardware Features
5.3.3. Displacement Measurement
5.3.3.1. Digital Resolution
5.3.3.2. Physical Resolution
5.3.3.3. Step-Up Gearing
5.3.3.4. Interpolation
5.3.4. Velocity Measurement
5.3.4.1. Velocity Resolution
5.3.4.2. Step-Up Gearing
5.3.5. Data Acquisition Hardware
5.4. Absolute Optical Encoders
5.4.1. Gray Coding
5.4.1.1. Code Conversion Logic
5.4.2. Resolution
5.4.3. Velocity Measurement
5.4.4. Advantages and Drawbacks
5.5. Encoder Error
5.5.1. Eccentricity Error
5.6. Miscellaneous Digital Transducers
5.6.1. Digital Resolvers
5.6.2. Digital Tachometers
5.6.3. Hall-Effect Sensors
5.6.4. Linear Encoders
5.6.5. Moire Fringe Displacement Sensors
5.6.6. Cable Extension Sensors
5.6.7. Binary Transducers
Problems
6. Stepper Motors
6.1. Principle of Operation
6.1.1. Permanent-Magnet (PM) Stepper Motor
6.1.2. Variable-Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motor
6.1.3. Polarity Reversal
6.2. Stepper Motor Classification
6.2.1. Single-Stack Stepper Motors
6.2.2. Toothed-Pole Construction
6.2.3. Another Toothed Construction
6.2.4. Microstepping
6.2.5. Multiple-Stack Stepper Motors
6.2.5.1. Equal-Pitch Multiple-Stack Stepper
6.2.5.2. Unequal-Pitch Multiple-Stack Stepper
6.2.6. Hybrid Stepper Motor
6.3. Driver and Controller
6.3.1. Driver Hardware
6.3.2. Motor Time Constant
6.4. Torque Motion Characteristics
6.4.1. Static Position Error
6.5. Damping of Stepper Motors
6.5.1. Mechanical Damping
6.5.2. Electronic Damping
6.5.3. Multiple Phase Energization
6.6. Stepping Motor Models
6.6.1. A Simplified Model
6.6.2. An Improved Model
6.6.2.1. Torque Equation for PM and HB Motors
6.6.2.2. Torque Equation for VR Motors
6.7. Control of Stepper Motors
6.7.1. Pulse Missing
6.7.2. Feedback Control
6.7.3. Torque Control through Switching
6.7.4. Model-Based Feedback Control
6.8. Stepper Motor Selection and Applications
6.8.1. Torque Characteristics and Terminology
6.8.2. Stepper Motor Selection
6.8.2.1. Positioning (x-y) Tables
6.8.3. Stepper Motor Applications
Problems
7. Continuous-Drive Actuators
7.1. DC Motors
7.1.1. Rotor and Stator
7.1.2. Commutation
7.1.3. Static Torque Characteristics
7.1.4. Brushless DC Motors
7.1.4.1. Constant-Speed Operation
7.1.4.2. Transient Operation
7.1.5. Torque Motors
7.2. DC Motor Equations
7.2.1. Steady-State Characteristics
7.2.1.1. Bearing Friction
7.2.1.2. Output Power
7.2.1.3. Combined Excitation of Motor Windings
7.2.1.4. Speed Regulation
7.2.2. Experimental Model
7.2.2.1. Electrical Damping Constant
7.2.2.2. Linearized Experimental Model
7.3. Control of DC Motors
7.3.1. DC Servomotors
7.3.2. Armature Control
7.3.2.1. Motor Time Constants
7.3.2.2. Motor Parameter Measurement
7.3.3. Field Control
7.3.4. Feedback Control of DC Motors
7.3.4.1. Velocity Feedback Control
7.3.4.2. Position Plus Velocity Feedback Control
7.3.4.3. Position Feedback with Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Control
7.3.5. Phase-Locked Control
7.4. Motor Driver
7.4.1. Interface Card
7.4.2. Drive Unit
7.4.3. Pulse-Width Modulation
7.5. DC Motor Selection
7.5.1. Motor Data and Specifications
7.5.2. Selection Considerations
7.5.3. Motor Sizing Procedure
7.5.3.1. Inertia Matching
7.5.3.2. Drive Amplifier Selection
7.6. Induction Motors
7.6.1. Rotating Magnetic Field
7.6.2. Induction Motor Characteristics
7.6.3. Torque-Speed Relationship
7.7. Induction Motor Control
7.7.1. Excitation Frequency Control
7.7.2. Voltage Control
7.7.3. Rotor Resistance Control
7.7.4. Pole-Changing Control
7.7.5. Field Feedback Control (Flux Vector Drive)
7.7.6. A Transfer-Function Model for an Induction Motor
7.7.7. Single-Phase AC Motors
7.8. Synchronous Motors
7.8.1. Control of a Synchronous Motor
7.9. Linear Actuators
7.9.1. Solenoid
7.9.2. Linear Motors
7.10. Hydraulic Actuators
7.10.1. Components of a Hydraulic Control System
7.10.2. Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
7.10.3. Hydraulic Valves
7.10.3.1. Spool Valve
7.10.3.2. Steady-State Valve Characteristics
7.10.4. Hydraulic Primary Actuators
7.10.5. Load Equation
7.11. Hydraulic Control Systems
7.11.1. Feedback Control
7.11.2. Constant-Flow Systems
7.11.3. Pump-Controlled Hydraulic Actuators
7.11.4. Hydraulic Accumulators
7.11.5. Pneumatic Control Systems
7.11.6. Flapper Valves
7.11.7. Hydraulic Circuits
7.12. Fluidics
7.12.1. Fluidic Components
7.12.1.1. Logic Components
7.12.1.2. Fluidic Motion Sensors
7.12.1.3. Fluidic Amplifiers
7.12.2. Fluidic Control Systems
7.12.2.1. Interfacing Considerations
7.12.2.2. Modular Laminated Construction
7.12.3. Applications of Fluidics
Problems
8. Mechanical Transmission Components
8.1. Mechanical Components
8.2. Transmission Components
8.3. Lead Screw and Nut
8.4. Harmonic Drives
8.5. Continuously Variable Transmission
8.5.1. Principle of Operation
8.5.2. Two-Slider CVT
8.5.3. A Three-Slider CVT
Problems
Bibliography and Further Reading
Answers to Numerical Problems
Index
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ISBN
9781420044836
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